Tropical meteorology: an introduction / T.N. Krishnamuti, Lydia Stefanova, Vasubandhu Misra

Incluye bibliografía e índice: páginas 415-423

1 The Zonally Averaged Tropical Circulation.. 1.1 Introduction.. 1.2 Zonally Averaged Time Mean Fields.. 1.2.1 Zonal Velocity.. 1.2.2 Mean Meridional Circulation.. 1.2.3 Temperature Field.. 1.2.4 Moisture Field.. 1.3 Meridional Transports by the Zonally Symmetric Circulation.. 1.4 Theory of the Hadley Cell.. 1.4.1 Derivation of the Kuo-Eliassen Equation.. 1.4.2 Interpretation of the Kuo-Eliassen Equation.. References.. 2 Zonally Asymmetric Features of the Tropics.. 2.1 Introduction.. 2.2 Tropospheric Winds at 850 and 200 mb Levels.. 2.3 The Motion Field in the Upper Troposphere.. 2.4 The Temperature Field.. 2.5 The East/West Circulations in the Tropics.. 2.6 The Moisture Field.. 2.7 The Sea Level Pressure Field.. 2.8 Precipitation Field.. 2.9 Other Parameters.. References.. 3 The Intertropical Convergence Zone.. 3.1 Observational Aspects of the ITCZ.. 3.2 ITCZ Theory.. 3.3 Regulation of the Warm Pool SST.. References.. 4 Heat Induced Circulation.. 4.1 Adrian Gill's Atmospheric Model.. 4.1.1 Solutions to the Gill Model.. 4.2 Desert Heat Lows.. 4.2.1 Diurnal Change Over the Heat Lows.. 4.2.2 Vertical Motion and Divergence Structure of Heat Lows.. 4.2.3 Vertical Profiles of Radiative Transfer Over the Heat Low.. 4.2.4 Descent Above the Heat Low and Lateral Teleconnections.. 4.3 Heat Budget of the Heat Low.. References.. 5 Monsoons.. 5.1 Definition.. 5.2 Monsoon Domain.. 5.3 Differential Heating and the Monsoon.. 5.4 A Principal Axis of the Asian Monsoon.. 5.5 Key Elements of the Asian Summer and Winter Monsoon.. 5.6 Monsoon Onset and Withdrawal Isochrones.. 5.7 Features of the Monsoon Onset.. 5.8 Onset of Monsoon and the Wall of Moisture from the South.. 5.9 Cooling of the Arabian Sea Following the Onset of Monsoon.. 5.10 Some Onset-Related Dynamical Fields.. 5.11 ψ-乂 Interactions.. 5.12 The Heaviest Rainfall of the Summer Monsoon.. 5.13 Breaks in the Indian Monsoon

5.14 Active, Break and Withdrawal Phases of Indian Monsoons.. 5.15 The Somali Jet.. 5.16 Boundary Layer Dynamics of the Somali Jet.. 5.17 Upwelling in the Somali Jet Region.. References.. 6 Tropical Waves and Tropical Depressions.. 6.1 Introduction.. 6.2 Barotropic Instability.. 6.2.1 Necessary Conditions for the Existence of Barotropic Instability.. 6.2.2 Finite Difference Methods for Studying Barotropic Instability in the Tropics.. 6.3 Combined Barotropic-Baroclinic Instability.. 6.3.1 Necessary Conditions for the Existence of Combined Barotropic-Baroclinic Instability.. 6.3.2 Initial Value Approach to the Combined Instability.. 6.4 Dual Parts of African Waves.. References.. 7 Madden Julian Oscillation.. 7.1 Observational Aspects.. 7.2 Theory of the MJO.. 7.3 Westerly Wind Bursts in the MJO.. 7.4 The MJO Connection During the Birth and Demise of ENSO.. 7.5 Wave Energy Flux Across the Tropics.. 7.6 Real Data Forecasts of ISO.. References.. 8 Scale Interactions.. 8.1 Introduction.. 8.2 Wave-Number Domain.. 8.3 Frequency Domain.. 8.4 Frequency Domain Examples.. 8.5 Wave-Number Domain Examples.. 8.5.1 Global Tropics.. 8.5.2 Hurricanes.. Appendix 1: Derivation of Equations in Wave-Number Domain.. Appendix 2: A Simple Example.. References.. 9 El Niño and Southern Oscillation.. 9.1 Introduction.. 9.2 Observational Aspects.. 9.3 The ENSO Scenario.. 9.3.1 Arrival of a Sea Level Pressure Anomaly at the Near-Equatorial Latitudes.. 9.3.2 Trade Winds.. 9.3.3 Piling of Water Over the Western Pacific Ocean.. 9.3.4 Thermocline Transitions.. 9.3.5 Typical SST Anomalies, Normal and El Niño Years.. 9.3.6 The Pacific North American Pattern (PNA.. 9.3.7 A River of Westerlies That Nearly Encircles the Globe Emanating from the El Niño Region.. 9.4 Coupled Modeling of ENSO.. 9.4.1 Zebiak-Cane Ocean Model.. 9.4.2 Results from the Zebiak-Cane Model.. 9.5 ENSO Theory.. References

10 Diabatic Potential Vorticity Over the Global Tropics.. 10.1 Introduction.. 10.2 Diabatic Potential Vorticity Equation.. 10.3 Application of the Diabatic Potential Vorticity Equation to the Global Tropics.. 10.3.1 Potential Vorticity.. 10.3.2 Horizontal Advection of Potential Vorticity.. 10.3.3 Vertical Advection of Potential Vorticity.. 10.3.4 Vertical Differential Heating.. 10.3.5 Horizontal Differential Heating.. 10.3.6 Frictional Contribution.. 10.4 Application of the Diabatic Potential Vorticity Equation to Hurricanes.. References.. 11 Tropical Cloud Ensembles.. 11.1 Introduction.. 11.2 Understanding Simple Buoyancy-Driven Dry Convection.. 11.3 Understanding Simple Buoyancy-Driven Shallow Moist Convection.. 11.3.1 A Simple Cloud Model.. 11.3.2 Initial and Boundary Conditions and Domain Definition.. 11.3.3 Numerical Model Results.. 11.4 A Cloud Ensemble Model.. 11.4.1 Kinematics and Thermodynamics.. 11.4.2 Cloud Microphysics.. 11.4.3 Conversion Processes.. 11.4.4 Modeling Results.. References.. 12 Tropical Boundary Layer.. 12.1 Empirical Concepts.. 12.1.1 The Mixing-Length Concept.. 12.1.2 The Wind Profile and Surface Drag.. 12.1.3 Bulk Aerodynamic Method.. 12.2 Observational Aspects of the Boundary Layer.. 12.3 A Simple Model of the Tropical Boundary Layer.. 12.4 Surface Similarity Theory.. 12.5 Scale Analysis of the Large-Scale Tropical Boundary Layer.. 12.6 Cross-Equatorial Flows and Planetary Boundary Layer Dynamics.. References 13 Radiative Forcing.. 13.1 Radiative Processes in the Tropics.. 13.2 Shallow Stratocumulus Clouds and Radiative Transfer.. 13.3 Surface Energy Balance.. 13.3.1 Ground Temperature Tg.. 13.3.2 Evaluating Moisture Fluxes for Hydrological Budgets and Water Cycle Studies.. 13.3.3 The Surface Sensible and Latent Heat Fluxes.. 13.3.4 Net Solar (Shortwave Radiation at the Earth Surface.. 13.3.5 Net Thermal (Longwave Radiation at the Earth Surface.. 13.3.6 Surface Sensible Heat Flux

13.3.7 Surface Latent Heat flux.. 13.4 Top of the Atmosphere Net Radiation Fluxes.. 13.4.1 The Net Solar Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere.. 13.4.2 The Net Thermal Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere.. 13.5 Radiative Forcing for the Hadley and East-West Circulation.. 13.6 Life Cycle of the Monsoon.. References.. 14 Dry and Moist Static Stability.. 14.1 Introduction.. 14.2 Some Useful Definitions.. 14.3 Dry and Moist Static Energy.. 14.3.1 Dry Static Energy.. 14.3.2 Moist Static Energy.. 14.4 Dry and Moist Static Stability.. 14.4.1 The Dry Static Stability Equation.. 14.4.2 The Moist Static Stability Equation.. 14.5 Observational Aspects of the Trade Wind Inversion.. Reference.. 15 Hurricane Observations.. 15.1 Introduction.. 15.2 Conventional Observations.. 15.2.1 Observations of the Inner Core.. 15.3 Tropical Cyclones Over the Indian Ocean Basin.. References.. 16 Genesis, Tracks, and Intensification of Hurricanes.. 16.1 Introduction.. 16.2 Genesis.. 16.2.1 Horizontal Shear Flow Instability.. 16.2.2 Conservation of Potential Vorticity (PV.. 16.2.3 Diabatic Effects.. 16.2.4 Order of Magnitudes for the Terms of the PV Equation in a Hurricane.. 16.3 Tracks.. 16.3.1 The β Effect.. 16.3.2 The Fujiwhara Effect.. 16.3.3 The Extratropical Transition of Tropical Cyclones.. 16.4 Intensity.. 16.4.1 The Angular Momentum Principle.. 16.4.2 Local Cylindrical Coordinates.. 16.4.3 The Torques.. 16.4.4 What Does the Angular Momentum Field in a Hurricane Look Like?.. 16.4.5 Cloud Torques.. 16.4.6 Surface Frictional Torques.. 16.4.7 What Is a Constant Angular Momentum Profile.. 16.4.8 Pressure Torques.. 16.4.9 Inner Versus Outer Forcing.. 16.4.10 Vortical Hot Towers.. 16.4.11 Vortex Rossby Waves.. Appendix 1: Transformation of shear to Curvature Vorticity.. References

17 Modeling and Forecasting of Hurricanes.. 17.1 Introduction.. 17.2 The Axisymmetric Hurricane Model.. 17.3 Current Suite of Operational Models.. 17.4 Multimodel Superensemble for Atlantic Hurricanes.. 17.5 Multimodel Superensemble for Pacific Typhoons.. 17.6 Ensemble Forecasts from a Suite of Mesoscale Models and Combination of Mesoscale and Large Scale Models for Atlantic Hurricanes.. References.. 18 Sea Breeze and Diurnal Change Over the Tropics.. 18.1 Introduction.. 18.2 Sea Breeze Models.. 18.3 Some Observational Aspects of Diurnal Changes.. 18.4 Diurnal Variation in the Monsoon Belt.. 18.4.1 Diurnal Variation in Rainfall Over India.. 18.4.2 Diurnal Change Transitions Between the Himalayan Foothills and the Eastern Tibetan Plateau.. 18.4.3 The Arritt Nomogram.. 18.4.4 Monsoonal Scale Diurnal Oscillation of the Monsoon.. References.. 19 Tropical Squall Lines and Mesoscale Convective Systems.. 19.1 Introduction.. 19.2 West African Disturbance Lines.. 19.2.1 Squall Lines "An Integral Part of the African Wave".. 19.2.2 Squall Lines Are Located Between Two Easterly Jet Streams.. 19.2.3 Other Squall Line Models.. 19.2.4 Squall and Non-squall Systems.. 19.3 Mesoscale Convective Systems.. 19.4 Organization of Convection.. References.. Index

This book is designed as an introductory course in Tropical Meteorology targeting graduate or advanced undergraduate students. The material within can be covered in a one-semester course program. The text starts from the global scale-view of the Tropics, addressing the zonally symmetric and asymmetric features of the tropical circulation. It then goes on to progressively smaller spatial and time scales - from the El Niño Southern Oscillation and the Asian Monsoon, down to tropical waves, hurricanes, sea breezes, and tropical squall lines. The emphasis in most chapters is on the observational aspects of the phenomenon in question, the theories regarding its nature and maintenance, and the approaches to its numerical modeling. The concept of scale interactions is also presented as a way of gaining insight into the generation and redistribution of energy for the maintenance of oscillations of a variety of spatial and temporal scales. eng