The ecology of plants / Jessica Gurevitch, Samuel M. Scheiner, Gordon A. Fox

Incluye bibliografía: páginas 531-553 e índice: páginas 554-574

Glosario: páginas 519-529

1. The Science of Plant Ecology.. • Ecology as a Science.. o The Genesis of Scientific Knowledge.. o Objectivity, Subjectivity, Choice, and Chance in Scientific Research.. o Experiments: The Heart of Research.. o Testing Theories.. o Specific Results versus General Understanding.. o Science and Other Ways of Knowing, Revisited.. • Scale and Heterogeneity.. • The Structure and History of Plant Ecology.. • Additional Readings.. Part I. The Individual and Its Environment.. 2. Photosynthesis and the Light Environment.. • The Process of Photosynthesis.. • Photosynthetic Rates.. o Limitations Caused by Light Levels.. o Limitations on Carbon Uptake.. o Variation in Photosynthetic Rates Within and Between Habitats.. • The Three Photosynthetic Pathways.. o C3 Photosynthesis.. o C4 Photosynthesis.. o Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM Photosynthesis .. • Evolution of the Three Photosynthetic Pathways.. o Phylogeny of the Photosynthetic Pathways.. o Photosynthesis through Evolutionary Time.. • Growth Form, Phenology, and Distribution of C3, C4, and CAM Plants.. o Growth Forms and Habitats.. o Phenology.. o Geographic Distributions.. • Adaptations to the Light Environment.. o Sun and Shade Leaves.. o Species' Adaptations to High-Light and Low-Light Habitats.. o Do Sun and Shade Adaptations Exist Within Species? .. o Day Length: Responses and Adaptations.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Questions.. • BOX 2A. Photorespiration.. • BOX 2B. Stable Isotopes and Photosynthesis.. • BOX 2C. Leaf Iridescence and Structural Coloration.. 3. Water Relations and Energy Balance.. • Adapting to Life on Land.. • Water Potential.. • The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum.. • Transpiration and the Control of Water Loss.. o Strategies for Coping with Different Water Availability Conditions.. o Water Use Efficiency.. o Whole-Plant Adaptations to Low Water Availability.. o Physiolo

o Physiological Adaptations.. o Anatomical and Morphological Adaptations.. • The Energy Balance of Leaves.. o Radiant Energy.. o Conduction and Convection.. o Latent Heat Exchange.. o Putting It All Together: Leaf and Whole-Plant Temperature.. o Adaptations to Extreme Temperature Regimes.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Box 3A. Measuring Photosynthesis, Transpiration, and Water Potential.. • Box 3B. Why the Sky Is Blue and the Setting Sun Is Red.. 4. Soils, Mineral Nutrition, and Belowground Interactions.. • Soil Composition and Structure.. o Soil Texture.. o Soil pH.. o Horizons and Profiles.. o Origins and Classification.. o Organic Matter and the Role of Organisms.. • Water Movement within Soils.. • Plant Mineral Nutrition.. o The Stoichiometry of Nutrients.. o Nitrogen in Plants and Soils.. o Biological Nitrogen Fixation.. o Phosphorus in Soils.. o Nutrient Use Efficiency.. o Leaf Life Span and Evergreen versus Deciduous Leaves.. • Mycorrhizae.. o Major Groups of Mycorrhizae.. o The Role of Mycorrhizae in Plant Phosphorus Nutrition.. o Other Functions of Mycorrhizae.. o Orchids and Their Mycorrhizal Associations.. o Mutualism or Parasitism? .. o Effects of Mycorrhizae on Plant Interactions.. • Summary.. • Questions for Study and Discussion.. • Additional Readings • Box 4A. Symbioses and Mutualisms Part II. Populations and Evolution.. 5. Population Structure, Growth, and Decline.. • Some Issues in the Study of Plant Population Growth.. • Population Structure.. o Some Population Structure Issues Special to Plants.. o Sources of Population Structure.. • Studying Population Growth and Decline.. o Life Cycle Graphs.. o Matrix Models.. o Analyzing Matrix Models.. o But Real Plants Live in Variable Environments.. o Lifetime Reproduction: The Net Reproductive Rate.. o Reproductive Value: The Contribution of Each Stage to Population Growth

o Sensitivity and Elasticity.. o Age and Stage, Revisited.. o Other Approaches to Modeling Plant Demography.. • Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants.. • Random Variation in Population Growth and Decline.. o Long-term Growth Rates.. o Studying Variable Population Growth.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Discussion Questions.. • Box 5A. Life Table Calculations.. • Box 5B. Borrowing the Mark-recapture Method from Animal Ecology.. • Box 5C. Constructing Matrix Models.. • Box 5D. Demography of an Endangered Cactus, Coryphantha robbinsorum.. • Box 5E. Multiplying a Matrix Times a Population Vector.. • Box 5F. Reproductive Value.. • Box 5G. How Do Changes in the Transition Probabilities Affect the Population Growth Rate?.. 6. Processes of Evolution.. • Natural Selection.. o Variation and Natural Selection.. o The Factors Necessary for Natural Selection.. • Heritability.. o Resemblance among Relatives.. o Partitioning Phenotypic Variation.. o Genotype-Environment Interactions.. o Gene-Environment Covariation.. • Patterns of Adaptation.. o Heavy-Metal Tolerance.. o Adaptive Plasticity.. • Levels of Selection.. • Other Evolutionary Processes.. o Processes that Increase Variation.. o Processes that Decrease Variation.. • Variation among Populations.. • Ecotypes.. • Speciation.. • Adaptation and Speciation through Hybridization.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Box 6A. A Simple Genetic System and the Resemblance of Relatives.. 7. Growth and Reproduction of Individuals.. • Plant Growth.. • Ecology of Growth.. o Plant Architecture and Light Interception.. o Growth of Clonal Plants.. • Plant Reproduction.. o Vegetative Reproduction.. o Seeds Produced Asexually.. o Sexual Life Cycles of Plants.. • Pollination Ecology.. o Wind Pollination.. o Attracting Animal Visitors: Visual Displays

o Attracting Animal Visitors: Floral Odors and Acoustic Guides.. o Limiting Unwanted Visits.. o Pollination Syndromes.. o Aquatic Plants and Pollination.. • Who Mates with Whom?.. o Plant Gender.. o Competition for Pollinators and among Pollen Grains.. o Pollen Dispersal and Its Consequences.. o Assortative Mating.. o Frequency-Dependent Selection.. o Factors that Shape Plant Mating Systems.. o Applications of Pollination and Mating System Ecology.. • The Ecology of Fruits and Seeds.. o Seed Dispersal Patterns.. o Seed Banks.. • Summary.. • Questions for Study and Discussion.. • Additional Readings.. • Box 7A. Specialized Plants and Pollinators.. • Box 7B. Some Complex Plant-Pollinator Interactions.. • Box 7C. Pollination Experiments.. 8. Plant Life Histories.. • Plant Life Histories.. • Size and Number of Seeds.. • Life History Strategies.. o Life Span.. o r- and K-selection.. o Grime's Triangular Model.. o Demographic Life History Theory.. o Reproductive Allocation.. o Difficulties in Measuring Trade-Offs.. • Variation among Years.. o Consequences of Variable Environments.. o Seed Germination.. o Masting.. • Phenology: Within-Year Schedules of Growth and Reproduction.. o Vegetative Phenology.. o Reproductive Phenology: Abiotic Factors.. o Reproductive Phenology: Biotic Factors.. • Summary.. • Questions for Study and Discussion.. • Additional Readings.. Part III. Plant Communities.. 9. Community Properties.. • What Is a Community?.. o The History of a Controversy.. o A Modern Perspective on the Issues in Contention.. o Are Communities Real?.. • Describing Communities.. o Species Richness.. o Diversity, Evenness, and Dominance.. o Sampling Methods and Parameters for Describing Community Composition.. o Physiognomy.. o Long-Term Studies.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Box 9A. Communities, Taxa, Guilds, and Functional Groups

• Box 9B. A Deeper Look at Some Definitions: Abiotic Factors and Emergent Properties.. • Box 9C. The Long-Term Ecological Research Network.. 10. Competition and Other Interactions among Plants.. • Competition at the Level of Individuals.. o Seedlings: Density, Size Inequality, and Timing of Emergence.. o Seedlings: Density and Mortality.. o Mechanisms of Competition for Resources.. o Size and Resource Competition.. • Experimental Methods for Studying Competition.. o Greenhouse and Garden Experiments.. o Field Experiments.. • From Interspecific Competition to Allelopathy to Facilitation.. o Trade-offs and Strategies.. o Competitive Hierarchies.. o Allelopathy.. o Facilitation.. • Modeling Competition and Coexistence.. o Equilibrium Models.. o Stochastic and Nonequilibrium Approaches to Modeling Competition.. • Effects of Competition on Species Coexistence and Community Composition.. • Competition along Environmental Gradients.. o Conceptual Models of Competition in Habitats with Differing Productivities.. o Experimental Evidence.. o Evidence from Research Syntheses.. o Resolution of Differing Results.. • Summary.. • Questions for Study and Discussion.. • Additional Readings • Box 10A. How Competition Is Measured, and Why That Matters.. 11. Herbivory and Plant-Pathogen Interactions.. • Herbivory at the Level of Individuals.. • Herbivory and Plant Populations.. o Herbivory and Spatial Distribution of Plants.. o Granivory.. o Biological Control.. • Effects of Herbivory at the Community Level.. o Consequences of Herbivore Behavior.. o Apparent Competition.. o Introduced and Domesticated Herbivores.. o Effects of Native Herbivores.. o Generality.. • Plant Defenses.. o Plant Physical Defenses.. o Plant Secondary Chemistry.. o Constitutive versus Induced Defenses.. o Evolutionary Consequences of Plant-Herbivore Interactions.. • Parasitic Plants.. • Pathogens

o Effects of Disease on Individual Plants Physiological and Evolutionary Responses to Pathogens.. o Effects of Pathogens at the Population and Community Level.. o More Complex Interactions.. • Summary.. • BOX 11A. Impacts of Plant Disease on Humans: Potato Blight and the Irish Potato Famine.. • Additional Readings.. • Questions.. 12. Disturbance and Succession.. • Theories of the Mechanisms of Succession.. • Disturbance.. o Gaps.. o Fire.. o Wind.. o Water.. o Animals.. o Earthquakes and Volcanoes.. o Disease.. o Humans.. • Colonization.. • Determining the Nature of Succession.. o Interaction between Methodology and Understanding.. o Mechanisms Responsible for Successional Change.. o The Predictability of Succession.. o Community Restoration.. • Primary Succession.. • Climax Revisited.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. 13. Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity.. • Dominance.. o Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior?.. o Abundance Curves.. • Rarity and Commonness.. o The Nature of Rarity.. o Patterns of Rarity and Commonness.. o Causes of Rarity and Commonness.. • Effects of Invasions and Community Susceptibility to Invasion.. o Why Do Some Species Become Invasive?.. o What Makes a Community Susceptible to Invasion?.. • Abundance and Community Structure.. o Productivity and Diversity.. o Niche Differentiation, Environmental Heterogeneity, and Diversity.. o Gaps, Disturbance, and Diversity.. • Effects of Increasing Diversity.. o Testing the Effects of Diversity on Ecosystems.. o Diversity and Stability.. o Regional Processes.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. Part IV. From Ecosystems to Landscapes.. 14. Ecosystem Processes.. • Biogeochemical Cycles: Quantifying Pools and Fluxes.. • The Global Water Cycle.. • Carbon in Ecosystems.. o Productivity.. o Methods for Estimating Productivity.. o Decomposition and Soil Food Webs.. o Carbon Storage

o Models of Ecosystem Carbon Cycles.. • Nitrogen and the Nitrogen Cycle at Ecosystem and Global Levels.. o Nitrogen Fixation.. o Other Sources of Nitrogen Input to Living Organisms.. o Nitrogen Mineralization.. o Denitrification and Leaching of Nitrogen.. o Decomposition Rates and Nitrogen Immobilization.. o Plant Uptake of Nitrogen.. • Phosphorus in Terrestrial Ecosystems.. • Ecosystem Nutrient Cycling and Plant Diversity.. • Ecosystem Processes for Some Other Elements.. o Sulfur.. o Calcium.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Questions for Further Thought and Review.. • BOX 14A. Serpentine Soils.. 15. Communities in Landscapes.. • Comparing Communities.. o Non-numerical Techniques.. o Univariate Techniques.. o Multivariate Techniques.. • Landscape Patterns.. o Ordination: Describing Patterns.. o Determining Causes of Patterns.. o Types of Data.. o Classification.. o Views on Continuous versus Discrete Landscapes.. • Landscape Diversity.. o Differentiation Diversity.. o Pattern Diversity.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Differentiating Vegetation Based on Spectral Quality.. • BOX 15A. Differentiating Vegetation Based on Spectral Quality.. 16. Landscape Ecology.. • Spatial Patterns.. o Six Types of Species-Area Curves.. o Defining Patches.. o Quantifying Patch Characteristics and Interrelationships.. o The Effects of Spatial Patterns on Ecological Processes.. • Scale.. o Definitions and Concepts.. o Process and Scale.. o Spatial and Ecological Scale.. o Quantifying Aspects of Spatial Pattern and Scale.. • Toward a Theoretical Basis for Landscape Patterns: Island Biogeography Theory.. o Metapopulation Theory.. o Metapopulation Patterns.. o Species-Time-Area Relationships.. • Landscape Ecology and Conservation.. o Reserve Design.. o Fragmentation.. o Edges, Connectivity, and Nestedness.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings

• Discussion Questions.. Part V. Global Patterns and Processes.. 17. Climate and Physiognomy.. • Climate and Weather.. • Temperature.. o Short-Term Variation in Radiation and Temperature.. o Long-Term Cycles.. • Precipitation.. o Global Patterns.. o Continental-Scale Patterns.. o Seasonal Variation in Precipitation.. o The El Niño Southern Oscillation.. o Predictability and Long-Term Change.. • Plant Physiognomy Across the Globe.. o Forests.. o Tree Line.. o Grasslands and Woodlands.. o Shrublands and Deserts.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Box 17A. The Coriolis Effect.. 18. Biomes.. • Categorizing Vegetation.. • Converging Biomes and Convergent Evolution.. • Moist Tropical Forests.. o Tropical Rainforest.. o Tropical Montane Forest.. • Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands.. o Tropical Deciduous Forest.. o Thorn Forest.. o Tropical Woodland.. • Temperate Deciduous Forest.. • Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands.. o Temperate Rainforest.. o Temperate Evergreen Forest.. o Temperate Woodland.. • Taiga.. • Temperate Shrubland.. • Grasslands.. o Temperate Grassland.. o Tropical Savanna.. • Deserts.. o Hot Desert.. o Cold Desert.. • Alpine and Arctic Vegetation.. o Alpine Grassland and Shrubland.. o Tundra.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Discussion Questions.. 19. Regional and Global Diversity.. • Large-Scale Patterns of Species Richness.. • General Factors Affecting Diversity.. o Levels of Explanation.. o Null Models.. o The Importance of Available Energy.. o Contributions of α, β, and γ diversity.. • Diversity along Ecological Gradients.. • Productivity and Scale.. • Latitudinal Gradients.. o An Array of Explanations.. o The role of β diversity.. • Continental Differences.. • Other Geographic Patterns.. o Species Diversity and Patterns of Overlap.. o Endemism, Centers of Diversification, and Isolation.. • Relationsh

• Relationships between Regional and Local Diversity.. • Noisy Data and Limits to Methodology.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. • Discussion Questions.. • BOX 19A. The Fynbos and the Cape Region of Africa.. 20. Paleoecology.. • The Paleozoic Era.. • The Mesozoic Era.. o The Dominance of Gymnosperms.. o The Breakup of Pangaea and the Rise of the Angiosperms.. o The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T Boundary.. • The Cenozoic Era.. • Paleoecology Methods.. • The Recent Past.. o At the Glacial Maximum.. o Glacial Retreat.. o Climatic Fluctuations in the Recent Past.. • Summary.. • Additional Readings.. 21. Global Change: Humans and Plants.. • Carbon and Plant-Atmosphere Interactions.. o The Global Carbon Cycle.. o Direct Effects of Increasing CO2 on Plants.. • Anthropogenic Global Climate Change.. o The Greenhouse Effect.. o Global Climate Change: Evidence.. o Global Climate Change: Predictions.. o Biotic Consequences of Climate Change.. • Anthropogenic Effects on the Global Carbon Cycle.. o Deforestation.. o Fossil Fuel Combustion.. • Acid Precipitation and Nitrogen Deposition.. • Declining Global Biodiversity and Its Causes.. o Habitat Fragmentation and Loss.. o Other Threats to Rare and Common Species in a Range of Communities.. o Human Populations and Land Use Patterns.. • A Ray of Hope?.. • Summary.. • Questions for Study and Discussion.. • Additional Readings.. • Box 21A. Modeling Climate.. • Box 21B. Daily Human Activities and CO2 Generation.. Appendix: A Statistics Primer

Now in full color, this thoroughly revised and updated Second Edition of The Ecology of Plants incorporates many new illustrations and hundreds of new references. The text covers a range of topics that you might find in a general ecology textbook, but with the focus on the interactions between plants and their environment over a range of scales. Some of the subjects covered are unique to plants, such as photosynthesis and the ecology of plant-soil interactions; other topics, such as resource and mate acquisition, emphasize the distinctive ways plants (in contrast to mobile animals) deal with their environments. The book is unusual in emphasizing the importance of evolutionary and other historical processes for current ecology. Throughout the text, human environmental influences are discussed. While the book is written for an undergraduate college course in plant ecology, the engaging style, thorough coverage of the field, and contemporary perspective make it accessible and useful to others as well, from graduate students in conservation biology to evolutionary biologists and resource managers. eng