Karst hydrogeology, geomorphology and caves / Jo De Waele, Francisco Gutiérrez

Incluye bibliografía e índice temático: páginas 857-888

Preface.. 1 Introduction to Karst.. 1.1 The Term Karst. Definition and Origin.. 1.2 Classification of Karst.. 1.3 Global Distribution of Karst.. 1.4 Karst Terminology.. 2 Karst Rocks.. 2.1 Karst Rocks Within the Rock Classifications.. 2.2 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals.. 2.2.1 Carbonate Minerals.. 2.2.2 Depositional Environments and Components of Marine Limestones.. 2.2.3 Limestone Classification Schemes.. 2.2.4 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy.. 2.2.5 Limestone Diagenesis.. 2.2.6 Dolomite and Dolomitization.. 2.2.7 Terrestrial Carbonates.. 2.2.8 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks.. 2.2.9 Other Carbonate Rocks.. 2.2.9.1 Carbonate Conglomerates and Sandstones.. 2.2.9.2 Carbonate Breccias.. 2.2.9.3 Marbles.. 2.2.9.4 Carbonatites.. 2.3 Evaporite Rocks and Minerals.. 2.3.1 Gypsum and Anhydrite.. 2.3.2 Halite.. 2.3.3 Other Salts.. 2.4 Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites.

3 Dissolution of Karst Rocks.. 3.1 Introduction.. 3.2 Basic Concepts and Parameters.. 3.2.1 Water, an Exceptional Dipolar Molecule and Solvent.. 3.2.2 Concentration Units and Related Parameters.. 3.2.3 Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction 86 3.2.4 Activity.. 3.2.5 Saturation Index.. 3.2.6 pH and the Acidity of Karst Waters.. 3.3 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters.. 3.3.1 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere.. 3.3.2 Carbon Dioxide in Soils.. 3.3.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide in Water and the Carbonic Acid System.. 3.3.4 The Dissolution of Calcite and Dolomite.. 3.3.5 The Solubility of Carbonate Minerals.. 3.3.6 Open and Closed CO2- Dissolution Systems.. 3.4 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks by Sulfuric Acid.. 3.5 The Dissolution of Gypsum and Halite.. 3.6 The Dissolution of Silica.. 3.7 Factors that Influence the Solubility and Saturation State.. 3.7.1 Effects Related to Temperature and Pressure Changes.. 3.7.2 Common-Ion Effect.. 3.7.3 Ionic-Strength Effect.. 3.7.4 Ion-Pair Effect.. 3.7.5 Water Mixing.. 3.7.6 Exotic Inorganic Acids.. 3.7.7 Acid Rain.. 3.8 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Minerals.. 3.8.1 Dissolution Kinetics of Calcite, Aragonite, and Dolomite.. 3.8.2 Dissolution Kinetics of Gypsum and Halite.. 3.9 Geological Controls on Karst Development.. 3.9.1 Rock Composition and Purity.. 3.9.2 Grain Size and Texture.. 3.9.3 Porosity.. 3.9.4 Bedding Planes and Stratigraphic Contacts.. 3.9.5 Joints.. 3.9.6 Faults.. 3.9.7 Folds.. 3.9.8 Interbedded Non-soluble Rocks.. 3.10 Biokarst Processes.. 3.10.1 Biokarst Processes Associated with the Surface Environment.. 3.10.2 Biokarst Processes in Caves.. 4 Denudation in Karst. Rates and Spatial Distribution.. 4.1 Basic Concepts.. 4.2 Controlling Factors and the Influence of Climate.. 4.3 Methods for Measuring Denudation Rates and the Carbonate Karst Experience.. 4.3.1 Hydrochemical Measurements.. 4.3.2 Weight Loss of Standard Tablets.. 4.3.3 Micro-erosion Meter.. 4.3.4 High-resolution 3D Surface Models.. 4.3.5 Long-term Surface Lowering around Pedestals, Dikes, and Siliceous Nodules.. 4.3.6 Long-term Erosion Rates Derived from Cosmogenic Chlorine-36 in Calcite.. 4.4 Denudation Rates in Gypsum and Salt.. 4.5 Solutional Denudation of Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites.. 4.6 Interpretation and Integration of Denudation Rates.. 4.6.1 Vertical and Spatial Distribution of Karst Denudation and Deposition.. 4.6.2 Long-term Rates of Base-Level Lowering and Downcutting.. 5 Karst Hydrogeology.. 5.1 Introduction.. 5.2 Brief Historical Overview on Karst Hydrogeology (<1900).. 5.3 Definitions.. 5.4 Groundwater Flow Fundamentals.. 5.4.1 Laminar Flow Through Granular Media.. 5.4.2 Turbulent Flow Through Conduits.. 5.4.3 Flow Through Fractured Media.. 5.5 Groundwater Flow in Karst Aquifers.. 5.5.1 The Hydrological and Geological Water Cycle.. 5.5.2 The Energy and Forces Involved in Groundwater Flow in Karst.. 5.5.3 Inputs.. 5.5.4 Outputs.. 5.5.5 Throughput.. 5.5.6 Lithological and Structural Control on Groundwater Flow.. 5.5.7 Karst Groundwater Basins.. 5.5.8 Hydrological Role of the Epikarst and the Transmission Zone.. 5.5.9 The Water Table in Karst.. 5.5.10 Freshwater–Saltwater Interface.. 5.6 Analysis of Karst Groundwater Basins.. 5.6.1Defining Karst Aquifers.. 5.6.2 Complementary Approaches in Karst Aquifer Studies.. 5.6.3 Groundwater Basin Definition and Water Balance.. 5.6.4 Precipitation and Recharge.. 5.6.5 Flow Measurements.. 5.6.6 Boreholes.. 5.6.7 Spring Hydrographs and Chemographs.. 5.6.8 Water Tracing.. 5.6.9 Isotopes.. 5.6.10 Remote Sensing and Geophysical Techniques.. 5.6.11 Karst Aquifer Modeling.

6. Karren and Sinkholes.. 6.1 Karst. A Special Geomorphic System.. 6.2 Karren.. 6.2.1 Bare Karren.. 6.2.2 Covered Karren.. 6.2.3 Bare and Covered Structural Karren.. 6.2.4 Coastal Karren.. 6.3 Sinkholes (Dolines) 374 6.3.1 General Aspects and Classification.. 6.3.2 Solution Sinkholes and Polygonal Karst.. 6.3.3 Collapse Sinkholes.. 6.3.4 Suffosion Sinkholes.. 6.3.5 Sagging Sinkholes.. 6.3.6.. Factors that Control Subsidence Sinkholes and Human-Induced Sinkholes.. 6.3.7 Sinkhole Mapping.. 6.3.8 Sinkhole Morphometry and Spatial Distribution.. 7 Other Karst Landforms.. 7.1 Poljes.. 7.1.1 General Aspects and Distribution.. 7.1.2 Geomorphological, Hydrological and Geological Features of Poljes.. 7.1.3 Origin and Classification.. 7.2 Corrosion Plains, Rejuvenation, and Submergence.. 7.3 Residual Hills. Fenglin and Fengcong.. 7.4 Valleys in Karst.. 7.4.1 Through Valleys.. 7.4.2 Blind Valleys.. 7.4.3 Pocket Valleys.. 7.4.4 Cave-Collapse Valleys.. 7.4.5 Dry Valleys.. 7.5 Constructional Features. Calcareous Tufas and Travertines.. 8 Special Features Associated with Evaporites.. 8.1 Interstratal Evaporite Karst.. 8.2 Covered Evaporite Karst.. 8.3 Bare Evaporite Karst.. 8.4 Salt Tectonics and Karst in Salt Extrusions.. 8.4.1 The Special Rheology of Rock Salt. An Exceptional Mobile Bedrock.. 8.4.2 Salt Structures and the Geomorphic Impact of Salt Flow.. 8.4.3 The Morphological Evolution of Salt Extrusions and the Role of Dissolution.. 9 Cave Geomorphology.. 9.1 Introduction.. 9.1.1 Definition of Cave.. 9.1.2 Cave-Forming Processes.. 9.1.3 Cave Classifications.. 9.1.3.1 Solution Caves.. 9.1.3.2 Caves Related to Mechanical Movement and Accumulation.. 9.1.3.3 Caves Related to Mechanical Weathering and Erosion.. 9.1.3.4 Depositional Caves.. 9.1.3.5 Caves Related to Melting.. 9.1.3.6 Caves Related to Solidification.. 9.2 Macromorphology.. 9.2.1 Cave Surveying.. 9.2.2 Cave Entrances.. 9.2.3 Cave Passages.. 9.2.3.1 Shafts.. 9.2.3.2 Canyons.. 9.2.3.3 Tubes.. 9.2.3.4 Fissures.. 9.2.3.5 Mixed Phreatic-Vadose Forms.. 9.2.3.6 Phantom (Ghost- Rock) Passages.. 9.2.4 Cave Rooms.. 9.2.5 Cave and Passage Terminations.. 9.2.6 Cave Ground Plans.. 9.2.7 Cave Profile and Cave Storeys.. 9.3 Speleogens: Small-Scale Passage Morphologies.

10 Cave Deposits.. 10.1 Introduction.. 10.2 Classification of Cave Sediments.. 10.3 Clastic Sediments.. 10.3.1 The Cave Sedimentary System.. 10.3.2 The Origin and Flux of Clastic Sediments in Caves.. 10.3.3 Fluvial Erosion and Transport.. 10.3.4 The Cave Sedimentary Facies.. 10.3.5 Other Allogenic Clastic Sediments.. 10.3.6 Provenance of Allogenic Clastic Cave Sediments.. 10.3.7 Autogenic Clastic Sediments.. 10.3.8 Anthropic Waste.. 10.3.9 Sedimentary Structures.. 10.4 Organic Sediments.. 10.4.1 Vegetal and Animal Debris.. 10.4.2 Autogenic Organic Sediments.. 10.5 Transported Chemical Deposits.. 10.6 Chemical Deposits.. 10.6.1 Minerogenetic Mechanisms in Caves.. 10.6.2.. Carbonates.. 10.6.3 Other Cave Minerals.. 10.6.3.1 Halides.. 10.6.3.2.. Sulfates.. 10.6.3.3 Phosphates and Nitrates.. 10.6.3.4 Oxides and Hydroxides.. 10.6.3.5 Silica and Silicates.. 10.6.4 Secondary Ice.. 10.7 Speleothems.. 10.7.1 Speleothems Formed by Dripping and Flowing Water.. 10.7.2 Speleothems Formed in Vadose Standing Water Bodies.. 10.7.3 Speleothems Formed in Phreatic (Thermal) Water Bodies.. 10.7.4 Speleothems Formed by Dominant Evaporation.. 10.7.5 Speleothems Formed by Capillary Water.. 10.7.6 Speleothems Formed by Microorganisms.. 10.7.7 The Color of Speleothems.. 10.7.8.. Speleothem Growth Rate.. 10.7.9 Decay of Speleothems.. 10.7.10 Dating Clastic and Chemical Cave Sediments.. 10.7.10.1 Radiocarbon.. 10.7.10.2 Uranium–Thorium.. 10.7.10.3 Uranium-Lead and Other Methods.. 10.7.10.4 Aluminum–Beryllium.. 10.7.10.5 Potassium–Argon.. 10.7.10.6 Electron Spin Resonance, Optically Stimulated Luminescence, and Thermoluminescence.. 10.7.10.7.. Amino Acid Racemization.. 10.7.10.8 Paleomagnetism.. 10.7.10.9 Lamina Counting-Fluorescence-Trace Elements.. 10.8 Cave Sediments as Paleoclimate and Paleo-Environmental Archives.. 11 Speleogenesis: How Solutional Caves Form.. 11.1 The Growth of Ideas About Cave Genesis.. 11.2 Geological Controls on Cave Genesis in Carbonate Rocks.. 11.2.1 Influence of Lithology 765 11.2.1.1 Influence of Rock Purity.. 11.2.1.2 Influence of Grain Size and Texture.. 11.2.1.3 Influence of Matrix Porosity.. 11.2.2 Influence of Stratigraphic Position of Soluble Rocks.. 11.2.3 Influence of Geological Structures.. 11.2.3.1 Influence of Bedding Planes.. 11.2.3.2 Influence of Joints.. 11.2.3.3 Influence of Faults.. 11.2.3.4 Influence of Folds.. 11.2.3.5 Inception Horizons.. 11.2.4 Topography, Base-Level and Climate.. 11.3 Simple Models of Initial Cave Development.. 11.3.1 Hardware Models of a Single Input.. 11.3.2 Computer Modeling of a Single Fissure.. 11.3.3 Hardware Modeling of Multiple Inputs.. 11.3.4 Computer Modeling of Two-and Three-Dimensional Fissure Networks.. 11.4 Hydrogeological Controls on Cave Genesis.. 11.4.1 Multiple-Point Recharge.. 11.4.2 Concentrated Recharge.. 11.4.3 Diffuse Recharge from Above.. 11.4.4 Diffuse Recharge from Below.. 11.4.5 Rising Thermal Fluids.. 11.4.6 Sulfuric Acid Fluids.. 11.4.7 Coastal Mixing.. 11.5 Caves in Non-Carbonate Rocks.. 11.5.1 Halite Caves.. 11.5.2 Gypsum–Anhydrite Caves.. 11.5.3.. Quartzite Cave.. 11.5.4 Iron Formation Caves.. 11.6 Condensation–Corrosion.. 11.7 A Summary: Life Cycle of Solution Caves.. 11.7.1 Initiation of a Cave.. 11.7.2 Rapid Cave Enlargement.. 11.7.3 Cave Maturation.. 11.7.4 Cave Abandonment and Decay.. Index.